Section 1280:16. APPENDIX P

APPENDIX P

Best available technologies (BATs) for radionuclides. The commissioner identifies as indicated in the following table the best technology available for achieving compliance with the maximum contaminant levels for combined radium-226 and radium-228, uranium, gross alpha particle activity, and beta particle and photon radioactivity.

Table I. BAT for Combined Radium-226 and Radium-228, Uranium, Gross Alpha Particle Activity, and Beta Particle and Photon Radioactivity.
Contaminant	BAT
1. Combined radium-226 and radium-228.	1. Ion exchange, reverse osmosis, lime softening.
2. Uranium.	2. Ion exchange, reverse osmosis, lime softening, coagulation/ filtration.
3. Gross alpha particle activity (excluding Radon and Uranium).	3. Reverse osmosis.
4. Beta particle and photon radioactivity.	4. Ion exchange, reverse osmosis.

Small systems compliance technologies list for radionuclides.

Table II. List of Small Systems Compliance Technologies for Radionuclides and Limitations to Use.
Unit technologies	Limitations (see footnotes)1	Operator Skill Level required2	Raw water quality range and considerations.2
1. Ion exchange (IE).	(a)	Intermediate.	All ground waters.
2. Point of use (POU3) IE.	(b)	Basic.	All ground waters.
3. Reverse osmosis (RO).	(c)	Advanced.	Surface waters usually require pre-filtration.
4. POU3 RO.	(b)	Basic.	Surface waters usually require pre-filtration.
5. Lime softening.	(d)	Advanced.	All waters.
6. Green sand filtration.	(e)	Basic.	All waters.
7. Co-precipitation with Barium sulfate.	(f)	Intermediate to Advanced.	Ground waters with suitable water quality.
8. Electrodialysis/Electrodialysis Reversal.	..	Basic to Intermediate.	All ground waters.
9. Pre-formed hydrous Manganese oxide.	(g)	Intermediate.	All ground waters.
10. Activated alumina.	(a), (h)	Advanced.	All ground waters; competing anion concentrations may affect regeneration frequency.
11. Enhanced coagulation/ filtration.	(i)	Advanced.	Can treat a wide range of water qualities.

¹Limitations Footnotes: Technologies for Radionuclides:

a. The regeneration solution contains high concentrations of the contaminant ions. Disposal options should be carefully considered before choosing this technology.

b. When POU devices are used for compliance, programs for long-term operation, maintenance, and monitoring must be provided by water utility to ensure proper performance.

c. Reject water disposal options should be carefully considered before choosing this technology. See other RO limitations described in the SWTR Compliance Technologies Table.

d. The combination of variable source water quality and the complexity of the water chemistry involved may make this technology too complex for small surface water systems.

e. Removal efficiencies can vary depending on water quality.

f. This technology may be very limited in application to small systems. Since the process requires static mixing, detention basins, and filtration, it is most applicable to systems with sufficiently high sulfate levels that already have a suitable filtration treatment train in place.

g. This technology is most applicable to small systems that already have filtration in place.

h. Handling of chemicals required during regeneration and pH adjustment may be too difficult for small systems without an adequately trained operator.

i. Assumes modification to a coagulation/filtration process already in place.

²National Research Council (NRC). Safe Water from Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C. 1997.

³A POU, or ``point-of-use'' technology is a treatment device installed at a single tap used for the purpose of reducing contaminants in drinking water at that one tap. POU devices are typically installed at the kitchen tap. See the April 21, 2000, NODA for more details.

Table III. Compliance Technologies by System Size Category for Radionuclide NPDWR's.
Contaminant	Compliance technologies1 for system size categories (population served)
	25 – 500	501 – 3,300	3,300 – 10,000
1. Combined radium-226 and radium-228.	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
2. Gross alpha particle activity.	3,4.	3,4.	3,4.
3. Beta particle activity and photon activity.	1, 2, 3, 4. 1, 2, 4, 10, 11.	1, 2, 3, 4.	1, 2, 3, 4.
4. Uranium.		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11.	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11.

Note: ¹ Numbers correspond to those technologies found listed in Table II.

Statutory Authority

§§ 32.1-12 and 32.1-170 of the Code of Virginia.